Children and Social Exclusion: Morality, Prejudice, and Group Identity

Preface xiii

Chapter 1 Introduction: Exclusion and Inclusion in Children’s Lives 1

Theories of Social Cognition, Social Relationships, and Exclusion 3

Types of Exclusion 6

Goals of the Book 7

Summary 7

Chapter 2 The Emergence of Morality in Childhood 9

Morality in Childhood 10

What Morality is Not 10

Criteria, Definitions, and Measurements of Morality 11

Morality Encompasses Judgment, Emotions, Individuals, and Groups 12

Social Precursors of Moral Judgment 13

Moral Judgment and Interaction in Childhood 19

Morality as Justice 23

Social Domain Model of Social and Moral Judgment 25

Moral Generalizability 30

Morality in the Context of Other Social Concepts: Multifaceted Events 32

Morality and Theory of Mind 34

Morality and Social-Cognitive Development 35

Summary 35

Chapter 3 Emergence of Social Categorization and Prejudice 37

Social Categorization as a Precursor of Prejudice 38

Explicit Biases in Young Children 44

Cognitive Developmental Approach to Prejudice Development 47

Development of Implicit Biases 50

Relation of Implicit Bias to Judgment and Behavior: Is it Prejudice? 53

Summary 57

Chapter 4 Group Identity and Prejudice 59

Is Group Identity Good or Bad? 60

Social Identity Theory 62

Social Identity Development Theory 64

Theory of Social Mind and the Control of Prejudice 68

Moral or Group Norms and the Control of Prejudice 70

Processes Underlying the Control of Prejudice 73

Developmental Subjective Group Dynamics 77

Morality and Group Identity 81

Summary 84

Chapter 5 What We Know about Peer Relations and Exclusion 86

Intrapersonal and Interpersonal Exclusion: Social Traits and Individual Differences 87

Intragroup and Intergroup Exclusion: Ingroup/Outgroup Identity 90

Social Reasoning and Exclusion 92

Gender Exclusion in Early Childhood: Okay or Unfair? 94

Comparing Gender and Racial Exclusion: Group Goals and Qualifications 97

Interviewing Ethnic Minority and Majority Children and Adolescents about Exclusion 100

Social Reasoning about Exclusion in Adolescence: Crowds, Cliques, and Networks 108

Social Reasoning about Sexual Prejudice 108

Exclusion in Interracial Encounters: Lunch Table, Birthday Parties, and Dating 109

Gender Exclusion in the Family Context: Children’s Views about Parental Expectations 113

Summary 116

Chapter 6 Intragroup and Intergroup Exclusion: An In-depth Study 118

Group Dynamics: Conceptions of Groups in the Context of Exclusion 118

Group Dynamics: Group Identity, Group-Specific Norms, Domain-Specific Norms 119

Group-Specific Norms 123

Deviance in Social Groups 123

Group Identity 124

Implications for Group Identity in Childhood 132

Summary 132

Chapter 7 Peer Exclusion and Group Identity Around the World: The Role of Culture 134

Cultural Context of Exclusion 136

Long-Standing Intergroup Cultural Conflicts 137

Cultures with Intractable and Violent Conflict 138

Recently Immigrated Groups 143

Intergroup Exclusion Based on Indigenous Groups 151

Summary 152

Chapter 8 Increasing Inclusion, Reducing Prejudice, and Promoting Morality 154

Intergroup Contact and Reducing Prejudice 156

Intergroup Contact and Children 157

Cross-group Friendships and Prejudice 158

Intergroup Contact and Minority Status Children 163

Reducing Implicit Biases through Intergroup Contact 165

Reducing Prejudice through Extended Intergroup Contact 166

Promoting Inclusion through the Mass Media 171

Intergroup Contact and Promoting Moral Reasoning in Children 174

Multicultural Education and Social Exclusion 176

Factors that Reduce Childhood Bias 178

Summary 180

Chapter 9 Integration of Morality, Prejudice, and Group Identity: A New Perspective on Social Exclusion 181

Theories about Peer Relationships 181

Theories about Social Exclusion 183

Children as Active Participants 185

Judgments, Beliefs, Attitudes, Attributions of Emotions, and Behavior 187

Implicit and Indirect Measures of Prejudice and Exclusion 190

An Integrative Social-Cognitive Developmental Perspective on Social Exclusion 191

Social Experience Factors that Promote Inclusion 192

Exclusion and Prejudice 193

Summary 193

References 197

Index 223