Handbook of Weather, Climate, and Water : Atmospheric Chemistry, Hydrology, and Societal Impacts

Preface.

Contributors.

SECTION I: ATMOSPHERIC CHEMISTRY.

1. OVERVIEW: ATMOSPHERIC CHEMISTRY (Jack Fishman).

1 Stratospheric Chemistry: Understanding the Ozone Layer.

2 Tropospheric Chemistry: A Complex Interaction of Biogeochemical Cycles.

3 Global Carbon Cycle.

4 Global Carbon Budget.

5 Atmospheric Chemistry within Global Carbon Cycle.

6 Carbon Monoxide, Nitrogen Oxides, and Oxidizing Capacity of Troposphere.

7 Atmospheric Chemistry and Global Warming.

8 Stratosphere-Troposphere Chemical and Climate Interaction.

9 Stratosphere-Trophosphere Exchange.

References.

2. OXIDIZING POWER OF ATMOSPHERE (Daniel J. Jacob).

1 Introduction.

2 Hydroxyl Radical OH.

3 Other Atmospheric Oxidants.

References.

3. TROPOSPHERIC OZONE (Jack Fishman).

1 Introduction.

2 Chemistry of Tropospheric Ozone Formation.

3 Global Distribution of Tropospheric Ozone.

4 Tropospheric Ozone Trends in Nonurban Troposphere.

5 Global Tropospheric Ozone Budget.

6 Current Understanding of Tropospheric Ozone Budget.

References.

4. NITROGEN OXIDES AND OTHER REACTIVE NITROGEN SPECIES (J. H. Crawford, J. D. Bradshaw, D. D. Davis, and S. C. Liu).

1 Introduction.

2 Chemical Transformations and Speciation of Reactive Nitrogen.

3 Sources of Reactive Nitrogen.

4 Tropospheric Distribution of Reactive Nitrogen.

References.

5. CARBON MONOXIDE IN THE ATMOSPHERE (Paul Novelli).

1 Measurement Techniques.

2 Global CO Distributions.

3 Global CO Budget.

4 Tropospheric Trends.

References.

6. ATMOSPHERIC METHANE (M. A. K. Khalil and M. J. Shearer).

1 Introduction.

2 Atmospheric Observations.

3 Mass Balance.

4 Sources and Sinks.

5 Past and Present Trends.

6 Discussion and Commentary.

References.

7. BIOGENIC NONMETHANE HYDROCARBONS (Marcy E. Litvak).

1 Introduction.

2 Biogenic NMVOCs.

3 Regional and Global Distribution of Biogenic NMVOC Emissions.

4 Summary and Conclusions.

References.

8. ATMOSPHERIC SULFUR (D. D. Davis, G. Chen, and M. Chin).

1 Introduction.

2 Chemical Forms, Sources, and Concentration Levels.

3 Transformations.

4 Global Distributions of SO2 and Sulfate.

5 Stratospheric Sulfur.

References.

9. CONVECTIVE TRANSPORT (Kenneth E. Pickering).

1 Introduction.

2 Observations.

3 Modeling.

4 Summary.

References.

10. BOUNDARY LAYER PROCESSES AND FLUX MEASUREMENTS (Donald H. Lenschow).

1 Introduction.

2 Boundary Layer Evolution.

3 Structure of the Boundary Layer.

4 Scales and Processes.

5 Observational Techniques.

References.

11. SOURCES AND COMPOSITION OF AEROSOL PARTICLES (Richard Arimoto).

1 Introduction.

2 Mechanically Generated Aerosols.

3 Sources Producing Primary and Secondary Particles.

4 Concluding Remarks.

References.

12. AEROSOLS: FORMATION AND MICROPHYSICS IN THE TROPOSPHERE (John H. Seinfeld).

1 Introduction.

2 Particle Size Distribution.

3 Residence Times of Particles in the Troposphere.

4 Tropospheric Aerosols.

5 Aerosol Microphysics.

6 Conclusion.

References.

13. PHOTOCHEMICAL SMOG: OZONE AND ITS PRECURSORS (Sanford Sillman).

1 Introduction.

2 General Features of Photochemical Smog.

3 Relation between Ozone, NOx, and Hydrocarbons.

4 Chemistry of Ozone Formation.

References.

14. BIOMASS BURNING (Anne M. Thompson).

1 Introduction.

2 Chemical Reactions: Ozone Formation and Effects of Fires on Atmospheric Oxidizing Capacity.

3 Results of Tropical Field Campaigns.

4 Remote Sensing.

References.

15. ACID RAIN AND DEPOSITION (William B. Grant).

1 Introduction.

2 Sources.

3 Transformation.

4 Transport.

5 Deposition.

6 Measurement.

7 Intensive Study Programs.

8 Global Trends in Emissions and Deposition.

9 Soil Changes.

10 Effects of Forests, Aquatic Ecosystems, and Materials.

11 Policies.

References.

16. FUNDAMENTALS OF VISIBILITY (William C. Malm).

1 Introduction.

2 Theory of Radiation Transfer and Visibility.

3 Visibility Impairment.

4 Examples of Visibility Impairment.

5 Value of Good Visual Air Quality.

References.

17 CLOUD CHEMISTRY (Stephen E. Schwartz).

1 Introduction.

2 Cloud Physical Properties Pertinent to Cloud Chemistry.

3 Sources of Cloudwater Composition.

4 Uptake of Gases into Cloudwater.

5 Reactive Uptake of Gases by Cloudwater.

6 Coupled Mass Transport of Chemical Reaction.

7 Summary.

References.

18. DRY DEPOSITION (M. L. Wesely).

1 Introduction.

2 Formulation of Deposition Velocity.

3 Deposition Velocity Estimates.

4 Models of Deposition Velocity.

References.

19. FATE OF ATMOSPHERIC TRACE GASES: WET DEPOSITION (Chris Walcek).

1 Introduction.

2 Nucleation Scavenging.

References.

20. LARGE-SCALE CIRCULATION OF THE STRATOSPHERE (William L. Grose).

1 Governing Equations.

2 Vertical Temperature Structure.

3 Zonal-Mean Climatology of Temperatures and Zonal Winds.

4 Zonal-Mean Meridonial Circulation.

5 Wave Motions.

6 Summary.

References.

21. STRATOSPHERIC OZONE OBSERVATIONS (Jack A. Kaye and Jack Fishman).

1 Introduction.

2 Properties of Ozone Affecting Its Measurement.

3 Total Column Measurements.

4 Ozone Vertical Profile Measurements.

5 Future Measurements.

References.

22. AEROSOL PROCESSES IN THE STRATOSPHERE (Mario J. Molina).

1 Introduction.

2 Chemical Reactions on Stratospheric Aerosols.

3 Heterogeneous Reaction Rates and Mechanisms.

4 Thermodynamic Properties of Stratospheric Aerosols.

5 Mechanism of Formation of Stratospheric Aerosols.

References.

SECTION 2: HYDROLOGY.

23. HYDROLOGY OVERVIEW (Soroosh Sorooshian and Martha P. L. Whitaker).

1 Introduction.

2 Hydrologic Cycle.

3 Reservoirs.

4 Fluxes.

5 Modeling and Remote Sensing of the Global Hydrologic Cycle: Modeling Globally, Benefiting Locally.

6 Stochastic Models of Hydrologic Processes.

7 Conclusion.

References.

24. RAINFALL (James A. Smith).

1 Rain Gages.

2 Radar.

3 Satellite.

References.

25. SNOW HYDROLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES (WESTERN UNITED STATES) (Roger C. Bales and Don Cline).

1 Introduction.

2 Current Hydroclimatic Conditions in the Western United States.

3 Measurement and Estimation of Snow Properties.

4 Estimation of Snowmelt Runoff.

References.

26. EVALUATING THE SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION OF EVAPORATION (William P. Kustas, M. Susan Moran, and John M. Norman).

1 Introduction.

2 Short History.

3 Conventional Approaches for Measuring Evaporation.

4 Approaches for Estimating Evaporation Using Remote Sensing.

5 Synthesis.

6 Concluding Remarks.

References.

27. INFILTRATION AND SOIL MOISTURE PROCESSES (Paul R. Houser).

1 Controls on Infiltration and Soil Moisture.

2 Principles of Soil Water Movement.

3 Infiltration Estimation.

4 Infiltration Measurement.

5 Soil Moisture Measurement.

6 Spatial and Temporal Variability.

References.

28. GROUNDWATER FLOW PROCESSES (William W-G. Yeh).

1 Introduction.

2 Darcy's Law.

3 Flow Equation for a Confined or Leaky Aquifer.

4 Flow Equation for an Unconfined Aquifer.

5 Initial and Boundary Conditions.

6 Data Collection.

7 Selection of Numerical Models.

8 Parameter Estimation (Parameter Identification).

9 Parameterization.

10 Parameter Uncertainty, Parameter Structure, and Optimum Parameter Dimension.

11 Model Structure Error (Parameter Structure Error).

12 Generalized Inverse Procedure.

13 Conclusions.

References.

29. SURFACE RUNOFF GENERATION (Keith Beven).

1 Introduction: Defining Runoff.

2 Generation of Subsurface Runoff.

3 Generation of Surface Runoff.

4 Effect of Heterogeneity.

5 Importance of Runoff in Grid-Scale Land Surface Modeling for GCMs.

References.

30. FLOW ROUTING (D. L. Fread).

1 Introduction.

2 Storage Routing Models.

3 Simplified Hydraulic Routing Models.

4 Dynamic Routing Model.

References.

31. HYDROLOGIC MODELING FOR RUNOFF FORECASTING (Hoshin Gupta).

1 Introduction.

2 Modeling and Complexity.

3 Model Parameter Estimation, Calibration, and Evaluation.

4 Forecasting and State Updating.

5 Emerging Directions.

32. STOCHASTIC CHARACTERISTICS AND MODELING OF HYDROCLIMATIC PROCESSES (Jose´ D. Salas and Roger A. Pielke, Sr.).

1 Introduction.

2 General Characteristics of Hydroclimatic Processes.

3 Stochastic Analysis and Properties of Hydroclimatic Time Series.

4 Stochastic Models and Modeling Techniques.

References.

33. STOCHASTIC SIMULATION OF PRECIPITATION AND STREAMFLOW PROCESSES (Jose´ D. Salas, Jorge A. Ramý´rez, Paolo Burlando, and Roger A. Pielke, Sr.).

1 Stochastic Simulation of Precipitation.

2 Stochastic Simulation of Streamflow.

3 Temporal and Spatial Disaggregation Models.

4 Temporal and Spatial Aggregation Models.

5 Scaling Issues and Downscaling.

References.

34. STOCHASTIC FORECASTING OF PRECIPITATION AND STREAMFLOW PROCESSES (Juan B. Valde´ s, Paolo Burlando, and Jose´ D. Salas).

1 Introduction.

2 Adaptive Prediction: The Kalman Filter.

3 Stochastic Precipitation Forecasting.

4 Stochastic Streamflow Forecasting.

References.

35. REMOTE SENSING AND GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION SYSTEMS APPLICATIONS IN HYDROLOGY (Edwin T. Engman and Nandish Mattikalli).

1 Introduction.

2 Precipitation.

3 Snow Hydrology.

4 Soil Moisture.

5 Evapotranspiration.

6 Runoff.

7 Water and Energy Balance Models.

8 Geographical Information Systems.

9 Summary and Conclusions.

References.

36. FLOODS (Steven Jennings and Eve Gruntfest).

1 Introduction.

2 Definition of Floods.

3 Factors That Lead to Flooding.

4 Discussion of Nonstructural Measures.

5 Conclusion.

References.

SECTION 3: SOCIETAL IMPACTS.

37. CLIMATE AND SOCIETY (Michael H. Glantz).

References.

38. HOUSEHOLD FOOD SECURITY AND COPING WITH CLIMATIC VARIABILITY IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES (Thomas E. Downing and Yolande Stowell).

1 Introduction.

2 Case Studies of Vulnerability and Coping.

3 Approaches to Coping, Capacity, and Vulnerability.

4 Coping and Climate Prediction.

5 Conclusions.

References.

39. DROUGHT IN THE U.S. GREAT PLAINS (Donald A. Wilhite).

1 Introduction.

2 Concept of Drought: Definition and Types.

3 Drought Climatology of the Great Plains.

4 Impacts of Drought.

5 Drought Management.

6 Summary.

References.

40. FLOODS ON THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER SYSTEM OF THE UNITED STATES (Stanley A. Changnon).

1 Introduction.

2 Efforts to Control Flooding: 1851 to Present.

3 Impacts from Flooding.

4 Lessons.

5 Summary.

References.

42. HURRICANE AS AN EXTREME METEOROLOGICAL EVENT (Roger A. Pielke, Jr., and Roger A. Pielke, Sr.).

1 Introduction: Understanding Societal Responses to Extreme Weather Events.

2 Hurricanes Defined.

3 Hurricanes in North American History.

4 Geographic and Seasonal Distribution: Origin.

5 Hurricane Impacts on Ocean and Land.

6 Conclusion.

References.

43. EL NIÑO IN AUSTRALIA (Neville Nicholls).

1 Introduction.

2 El Niño-Southern Oscillation Effect on Australian Climate.

3 Discovery of Effect of El Niño-Southern Oscillation on Australia.

4 Ecological Impacts of El Niño-Southern Oscillation.

5 El Niño-Southern Oscillation and Vegetation Changes.

6 Impacts of El Niño-Southern Oscillation on Australian Crops.

References.

44. BIOLOGICAL AND SOCIETAL IMPACTS OF CLIMATE VARIABILITY: AN EXAMPLE FROM PERUVIAN FISHERIES (Kenneth Broad).

1 Introduction.

2 What Is ENSO?

3 Peruvian Fisheries Sector.

4 Artisanal Subsector.

5 Industrial Subsector.

6 Policy Implications of Climate Information.

References.

45. DROUGHT IN SOUTH AFRICA (Coleen Vogel).

1 Introduction.

2 Biophysical Dimensions of Drought in South Africa.

3 Rainfall Variability.

4 Causes of Droughts in South Africa.

References.

41. DROUGHT IN NORTHWEST AFRICA (Will Swearingen and Abdellatif Bencherifa).

1 Introduction.

2 Increasing Vulnerability to Drought.

3 Field Research to Assess Linkages between Human Activities and Drought.

4 Conclusion.

5 Classifying Droughts.

6 Impacts of Droughts in South Africa.

7 Drought Management and Policy Initiatives.

8 Conclusions.

References.

46. TRANSBOUNDARY FISHERIES: PACIFIC SALMON (Kathleen A. Miller and Mary W. Downton).

1 Introduction.

2 Salmon Abundance: Climate and Other Influences.

3 History of Harvest Management.

4 Recent Conflict.

5 Current Agreement and Prospects for the Future.

References.

47. TRANSBOUNDARY RIVER FLOW CHANGES (Roger S. Pulwarty).

1 Introduction.

2 Impacts.

3 The Nile: Centuries of Change.

4 The Colorado: Decadal-Scale Variations.

5 The Parana´-Paraguay River Basin: Interannual Variability and Extreme Events.

6 Problems.

7 Lessons.

8 Importance of Linking Human and Physical Aspects.

References.

48. LESSONS FROM THE RISING CASPIAN (Igor S. Zonn).

1 Introduction.

2 Nature of Sea-Level Changes in Caspian Sea.

3 The Caspian Rises.

4 Societal Impacts of Sea-Level Rise.

5 Sea-Level Change as a Global Problem.

References.

49. ACID RAIN AND SOCIETY (Paulette Middleton).

1 Introduction.

2 Acid Rain: The Phenomenon.

3 Definitions of Acid Rain.

4 Sources of Acidity.

5 Effects of Acid Rain.

6 Social Response to Acid Rain.

7 Current Conditions.

8 Keeping a Broad Basis of Assessment and Action.

References.

50. IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE (Stewart J. Cohen).

1 Science-Policy Challenge.

2 Need for Integrated Assessment of Global Climate Change.

3 Methodology for Impact Assessment of Climate Change Scenarios.

4 Summary of Case Studies.

5 Lessons and a Look Ahead.

References.

51. IMPACTS OF STRATOSPHERIC OZONE DEPLETION (Michele M. Betsill).

1 Introduction.

2 Impacts of Stratospheric Ozone Depletion.

3 International Responses to Stratospheric Ozone Depletion.

4 Remaining Challenges in Addressing Stratospheric Ozone Depletion.

5 Conclusion.

References.

52. TROPICAL DEFORESTATION AND CLIMATE (Roger A. Sedjo).

1 Introduction.

2 Human Influences in the Tropics.

3 Values of Forests.

4 Deforestation in the Tropics.

5 Similarities with Earlier Deforestations.

6 Timber Harvests in the Tropics.

7 Renewability.

8 Conclusions.

References.

53. DESERTIFICATION (R. L. Heathcote).

1 Introduction: Origins of Concern.

2 Defining the Phenomenon.

3 Documenting Desertification.

4 Explaining Desertification.

5 Future of Desertification.

References.

54. IMAGINABLE SURPRISES (Stephen H. Schneider).

1 Introduction.

2 Uncertainty.

3 Overcome or Just Manage Uncertainty.

4 Surprise.

5 Application to Global Change.

References.

Index.