Research Essentials: An Introduction to Designs and Practices

Tables, Figures, and Exhibits xvii

Preface xix

Introduction xxiii

The Editors xxvii

The Authors xxix

1 Research Ethics and the Use of Human Participants 1
K. Larson

Key Ideas 1

Ethical Standards 3

The Genesis of Research Standards 3

Federal Regulations for Ethical Research 4

Institutional Review Boards 5

Minimizing Risks to Participants 6

Informed Consent 6

Deception 9

Debriefing 11

Confidentiality and Anonymity 12

Publishing Research 13

Social Consequences of Unethical Research 14

Reading and Evaluating Studies 15

Summary 15

Key Terms 15

Further Readings and Resources 16

2 Understanding Literature Reviews 19
G. McAllister and A. Furlong

Key Ideas 19

What Is a Literature Review? 20

Basic Elements of a Literature Review 21

Types of Literature Reviews 22

Literature Reviews and Rigor 24

How to Read a Literature Review 25

Value of the Studies 27

Readability 27

Writing a Literature Review 29

Muck About 29

Set Your Parameters 29

Conduct Your Research 30

Analyze the Literature 30

Focus on the Purpose of Your Literature Review 31

Write Up the Literature Review 31

Summary 32

Key Terms 32

Further Readings and Resources 33

3 Essential Elements of Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Research 35
W. E. Martin Jr. and K. D. Bridgmon

Key Ideas 35

Experimental Research Today 36

Essential Elements of Experimental Research 37

Processes of Designing and Conducting Experimental Research 38

Formulating Experimental Conditions and Procedures 41

Reducing Imprecision in Measurement 44

Controlling Extraneous Experimental Influences 47

Experimental Designs 50

Randomized Posttest Only Control Group Design 51

Randomized Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design 51

Randomized Multiple Treatments and Control with Pretest Design 51

Randomized Longitudinal Design 51

External Validity 52

Quasi-Experimental Research 54

Nonequivalent Control Group Design 54

Untreated Control Group Design with Dependent Pretest and Posttest Samples Using a Double Pretest 54

Multiple Time-Series Design 55

Summary 56

Key Terms 56

Further Readings and Resources 57

4 Nonexperimental Quantitative Research 59
G. Belli

Key Ideas 59

Overview of Nonexperimental Research 60

Variables and Their Measurement 61

Defining Variables 62

Phrasing Questions 64

Classifying Nonexperimental Research 64

Classification Based on Purpose (Dimension 1) 65

Classification Based on Time (Dimension 2) 66

Combining Classification Dimensions 68

Causal Explanations and Nonexperimental Studies 71

Requirements for Causality 72

Ruling Out Alternative Hypotheses 73

Analysis and Interpretation in Nonexperimental Studies 75

Summary 76

Key Terms 76

Further Readings and Resources 77

5 A Primer of Survey Methods 79
M. Berends and G. Zottola

Key Ideas 79

What Is Survey Research? 80

Surveys You Know 80

The Research Process 81

Choosing a Topic 82

Focusing the Research: Concepts and Constructs 82

Hypotheses, Variables, and Operationalization 82

Independent Versus Dependent Variables 83

Writing Good Survey Questions 84

Piloting and Cognitive Interviews 87

Sampling, Response Rates, and Nonresponse 88

Probability or Random Sampling 89

Simple, Stratified, and Systemic Samples 89

Nonprobability Sampling 90

Response Rates and Nonresponse 91

Is the Framework Intact? 92

Data Reduction 92

Types of Surveys 93

Face-to-Face Interviews 93

Telephone Surveys 94

Mail Surveys 95

Internet and Web-Based Surveys 95

Ethical Issues in Survey Research 96

Ways to Ensure Confidentiality and Increase Anonymity 96

Informed Consent 97

Ethics Beyond Data Collection 98

Summary 98

Key Terms 99

Further Readings and Resources 99

6 Quantitative Data Analysis 103
M. T. Quartaroli

Key Ideas 103

What Do Those Numbers Mean? 104

Meanings of Numbers 104

Summarizing Data: Descriptive Statistics 105

Frequency Distributions 105

Distribution Patterns 107

Types of Numerical Data 111

Measures of Central Tendency 113

Measures of Variability 117

Measures of Relative Position 120

Measures of Relationship 122

Descriptive Statistics Are Important 124

Generalizing Results: Inferential Statistics 124

Tests of Significance 125

Selection of the Statistical Tests 126

Using Inferential Statistics for Decision Making 127

Evaluating Reports with Quantitative Data 128

Summary 129

Key Terms 129

Further Readings and Resources 130

7 Understanding Meta-Analyses 131
G. V Glass

Key Ideas 131

What Is Meta-Analysis? 132

Meta-Analysis Illustrated 132

Evaluating Meta-Analyses 138

Another Example 140

Summary 143

Key Terms 143

Further Readings and Resources 144

8 Evaluating Historical Research 145
L. M. Hines

Key Ideas 145

Basics of Historical Research 146

How Are Questions Posed, or “So What?” 148

Intriguing and Important Questions 148

Filling a Gap 149

Interpretive Differences 149

Exploring Current Policy 150

What Data Are Used, or “How Do You Know?” 151

Primary Sources 152

Secondary Sources 156

What Is the Interpretation, or “Why Do You Think That?” 157

Foci of Historical Studies 157

Perspective on History 159

Categories of Analysis 160

Types of Historical Research 160

Learning More 162

Summary 163

Key Terms 163

Further Readings and Resources 164

9 Case Study Research 165
S. D. Lapan and S. W. J. Armfield

Key Ideas 165

Purposes of Program Case Studies 167

Program Case Study Designs 168

One-Shot or Snapshot Design 168

Longitudinal Design 168

Comparison Design 169

Identifying the Case 169

Planning and Conducting Case Studies 170

Case Study Example: The Sentinel Middle School TILE Program 171

Case Study Question 1: Influence on Instructional Planning 173

Case Study Question 2: Student Thinking in Classroom Discussions 174

Common Case Study Characteristics 177

Learning from Case Studies 177

Trusting Case Study Reports 178

Summary 179

Key Terms 179

Further Readings and Resources 179

10 Program Evaluation 181
S. D. Lapan and C. M. Haden

Key Ideas 181

What Is Evaluation? 182

The Logic of Evaluation 182

Qualitative Versus Quantitative Data 183

Forms of Evaluation 183

Definition of a Program 184

Purposes of Program Evaluation 185

Program Evaluation History 186

How Is Evaluation Done? 187

Evaluation Agreement 188

Criteria and Standard Selection 188

Measuring Through Data Collection 190

Synthesizing and Reporting Study Results 193

Trusting Program Evaluation Findings 194

Ethics in Evaluation Studies 195

Judging Program Evaluation Studies 196

Evaluator Qualifications 196

Evaluation Planning 197

Evaluation Design 197

Evaluation Process 197

Data Richness 198

Study Validity 198

Study Report 199

Study Use 199

Summary 200

Key Terms 200

Further Readings and Resources 200

11 Ethnography Research 203
F. J. Riemer

Key Ideas 203

Groping in the Dark 204

What Is Ethnography Research? 204

Ethnography Is Descriptive 206

Ethnographic Methods 207

Data Collection 209

Risks of Ethnography Research 210

Ethnographic Data Analysis 211

Writing Up Field Notes 213

Writing Up Ethnography Research 214

Problems of Representation 215

Reading Ethnography 217

What Should a Reader Do? 217

Practice Your Reading Skills 218

Summary 218

Key Terms 218

Further Readings and Resources 219

12 Feminism(S): Critique and Transformation 223
R. Lalik and C. B. Felderman

Key Ideas 223

Feminism in Academic and Popular Discourse 224

Variability Among Feminisms 225

Waves of Feminism 225

African American Feminists Broaden the Conversation 226

Feminism(s) and the Critique of Science 228

Critique Related to Women’s Participation in Scientific Endeavors 229

Critique Related to the Erasure of Knowledge About Successful Women Scientists 229

Critique Related to the Patriarchal Nature of Science 230

Critique Related to the Epistemology of Science 231

Possibilities for a Feminist Epistemology 232

Feminism(s) and Research Method and Methodology 235

Resisting a Doctrine of Neutrality 235

Interrupting Efforts to Simplify and Universalize Knowledge 236

Studying How Women and Other Marginalized People Experience Life 237

Researching with Intention to Transform Society 238

Summary 239

Key Terms 239

Further Readings and Resources 240

13 Using Multiple Methods Approaches 243
P. A. Schutz, S. L. Nichols and K. A. Rodgers

Key Ideas 243

What is Multimethod Research? 244

Potential Benefits of Multimethod Research 245

An Early Comment on the Benefits of Multiple Methods Research 245

Adaptability of Multimethod Research 246

Strength and Quality of Inferencing 248

Summary of Benefits 251

Multimethod Research Design 251

Designs 252

Sampling Schemes 254

Multimethod Sampling 255

Research Design Conclusion 256

Summary 256

Key Terms 257

Further Readings and Resources 257

14 Qualitative Data Analysis 259
M. T. Quartaroli

Key Ideas 259

Words, Words, Words—Now What? 260

Organizing the Data 261

Describing the Data 264

Coding the Data 264

How Patterns Emerge 267

Representing the Findings 269

Writing Memos 269

Creating Vignettes 269

Developing Metaphors 269

Creating Diagrams or Displays 270

Building Theory 270

Data Analysis Is Iterative 271

Evaluating Reports with Qualitative Data 271

Summary 273

Key Terms 273

Further Readings and Resources 273

15 Applying Research Methods to Professional Practice 275
D. Hopkins and E. Ahtaridou

Key Ideas 275

What Is Action Research? 276

Models of Action Research 278

Kemmis Model 278

Elliott Model 278

Ebbutt Model 280

Methods of Action Research 282

Developing a Focus 283

Practitioner Reflection in Action 283

Data Collection Methods 284

A Framework for Data Analysis 289

Data Collection 289

Validation 289

Interpretation 290

Action 290

Summary 291

Key Terms 292

Further Readings and Resources 292

16 Research, Policy, and Practice: The Great Disconnect 295
D. C. Berliner

Key Ideas 295

Origins of Faith and Apostasy in Research as a Guide to Practice 296

Examples of the Problem 298

Case 1 298

Case 2 299

Case 3 300

Case 4 301

Why the Disconnect? 302

The Privacy Problem 302

The Changed Roles Problem 303

The Problem of Complexity in Classrooms and Other Social Settings 303

The Problem of Science When It Delves into the Arts 304

The Problem of Quality in Research 305

The Problem of Relevance 306

The Problem of Accessibility to Ideas by Practitioners 307

The Problems of Stability and Instability in the Education System 307

How Might Things Change? 309

Summary 312

Key Terms 313

References 315

Index 327