Nanochromatography and Nanocapillary Electrophoresis: Pharmaceutical and Environmental Analyses

PREFACE xiii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xv

1 Introduction 1

1.1. Nanoanalyses 1

1.2. Definition of Nanochromatography and Nanocapillary Electrophoresis 2

1.3. Nanochromatography and Nanocapillary Electrophoresis 3

1.4. Fabrication of Microdevices 4

1.5. Developments in Nanoanalyses 6

1.6. Data Integration 7

1.7. Protocol of Nanoanalyses 10

1.8. Scope of the Book 12

1.9. Conclusion 12

2 Fabrication of Microchips 17

2.1. Introduction 17

2.2. Substrates 18

2.3. Techniques of Fabrication 20

2.4. Surface Modification 39

2.5. Designs of Chips 45

2.6. Bindings in Chips 49

2.7. Conclusion 50

3 Instrumentation of Nanochromatography and Nanocapillary Electrophoresis 59

3.1. Introduction 59

3.2. Nanoliquid Chromatography (NLC) 60

3.3. Nanocapillary Electrophoresis 74

3.4. Conclusion 85

4 Detection in Nanochromatography and Nanocapillary Electrophoresis 91

4.1. Introduction 91

4.2. Mass Spectrometer Detectors 92

4.3. Fluorescence Detectors 97

4.4. Electrochemical Detectors 99

4.5. Element Specific Detectors 101

4.6. Miscellaneous Detectors 103

4.7. Conclusion 105

5 Sample Preparation in Nanochromatography and Nanocapillary Electrophoresis 109

5.1. Introduction 109

5.2. Sample Preparation 111

5.3. Sampling 111

5.4. Preservation 115

5.5. Filtration 116

5.6. Digestion/Homogenization 118

5.7. Extractions 119

5.8. Clean Up 119

5.9. Preconcentration 121

5.10. Off-Line Nanosample Preparation Methods 121

5.11. Online Nanosample Preparation Methods 125

5.12. Conclusion 138

6 Nano-High Performance Liquid Chromatography 145

6.1. Introduction 145

6.2. Nano-HPLC 146

6.3. Applications 146

6.4. Optimization of Separations in Nano-HPLC 161

6.5. Troubleshooting in Nano-HPLC 161

6.6. Conclusion 161

7 Nanocapillary Electrochromatography and Nanomicellar Electrokinetic Chromatography 167

7.1. Introduction 167

7.2. Nanocapillary Electrochromatography 167

7.3. Nanomicellar Electrokinetic Chromatography 181

7.4. Conclusion 188

8 Nanocapillary Electrophoresis 191

8.1. Introduction 191

8.2. Optimization 192

8.3. Applications 200

8.4. Mechanism of Separation 234

8.5. Conclusion 234

9 Chiral Separations by Nanoliquid Chromatography and Nanocapillary Electrophoresis 245

9.1. Introduction 245

9.2. Nanoliquid Chromatography 246

9.3. Nanocapillary Electrophoresis 249

9.4. Mechanisms of Chiral Separation 260

9.5. Conclusion 261

10 Perspectives on Nanoanalyses 263

10.1. Introduction 263

10.2. Future of Microfluidic Devices 264

10.3. Future Challenges 265

10.4. Conclusion 266

References 267

Subject Index 269