Handbook for Blast Resistant Design of Buildings

Preface xv

Contributors xix

I Design Considerations 1

1 General Considerations for Blast-Resistant Design 3
Donald O. Dusenberry

1.1 Introduction 3

1.2 Design Approaches 4

1.3 The Blast Environment 5

1.4 Structure As an Influence on Blast Loads 6

1.5 Structural Response 8

1.6 Nonstructural Elements 9

1.7 Effect of Mass 10

1.8 Systems Approach 12

1.9 Information Sensitivity 13

1.10 Summary 14

References 15

2 Design Considerations 17
Robert Ducibella and James Cunningham

2.1 Introduction 17

2.2 A New Paradigm for Designing Blast-Resistant Buildings, Venues, and Sites 18

2.3 A Brief History of Recent Terrorist Attacks 21

2.3.1 Terrorists’ Use of Explosives 21

2.3.2 Vehicle-Borne Improvised Explosive Devices 22

2.3.3 Person-Borne Improvised Explosive Devices 24

2.3.4 Locally Available Explosives 25

2.3.5 Some Counterterrorism Considerations 27

2.4 Collaborating to Analyze Risk 28

2.4.1 Step 1—Threat Identification and Rating 28

2.4.2 Step 2—The Asset Value Assessment 31

2.4.3 Step 3—The Vulnerability Assessment 34

2.4.4 Step 4—The Risk Assessment 38

2.4.5 Step 5—Considering Mitigation Options 39

2.4.6 The Continuing Role of Risk Management 40

2.5 Consequence Management 42

2.5.1 Consequence Evaluation 44

2.5.2 Function Redundancy 48

2.5.3 Building Location 51

2.5.4 Building Dispersal/Distribution of Functional Programs 54

2.5.5 Disaster Recovery and Contingency Planning 56

2.6 Threat Reduction 57

2.6.1 Accidental Explosions 59

2.6.2 Intentional Explosions 60

2.7 Vulnerability Reduction 63

2.7.1 Standoff Distance 64

2.7.2 Physical Security 65

2.7.3 Operational Security 65

2.7.4 Structural Design 65

2.8 Risk Acceptance 70

2.8.1 Design to Threat 71

2.8.2 Design to Budget 73

2.9 Some Recent Examples of Security Design “Best Practices” 75

2.10 Related Phenomena 76

2.10.1 Progressive Collapse 77

2.10.2 Disruption of Evacuation, Rescue, and Recovery Systems 79

2.10.3 Attendant Fires 81

2.11 Security Design Consideration Guidelines 83

2.12 Conclusion 84

References 85

3 Performance Criteria for Blast-Resistant Structural Components 87
Charles J. Oswald

3.1 Introduction 87

3.2 Building and Component Performance Criteria 88

3.3 Response Parameters 91

3.4 Empirical Correlations between Response Parameters and Component Damage 95

3.5 Response Criteria Development 99

3.5.1 Explosive Safety Criteria 99

3.5.2 Response Criteria for Antiterrorism 102

3.5.3 Response Criteria for Blast-Resistant Design of Petrochemical Facilities 105

3.5.4 Blast Resistant Doors 107

3.5.5 Blast-Resistant Windows 109

3.5.6 Response Criteria for Equivalent Static Loads 112

3.5.7 Comparisons of Published Response Criteria 113

3.6 Response Criteria Limitations 114

References 116

4 Materials Performance 119
Andrew Whittaker and John Abruzzo

4.1 Introduction 119

4.2 Structural Steel 119

4.2.1 Stress-Strain Relationships 119

4.2.2 Constitutive Models for Structural Steel 120

4.2.3 Component Level Strain Rate and Temperature Effects 123

4.2.4 Mechanical Properties for Design 125

4.2.5 Failure Modes of Structural Components 127

4.3 Reinforced Concrete 129

4.3.1 Stress-Strain Relationships for Concrete 129

4.3.2 Stress-Strain Relationships for Reinforcement 132

4.3.3 Constitutive Modeling of Concrete and Rebar 132

4.3.4 Component Level Strain-Rate Effects 136

4.3.5 Mechanical Properties for Design 138

4.3.6 Component-Level Failure Modes 141

4.4 Strength-Reduction Factors for Steel and Reinforced Concrete 144

References 145

5 Performance Verification 149
Curt Betts

5.1 Introduction 149

5.2 Performance Verification 149

5.3 Testing 150

5.3.1 Vehicle Barrier Testing 150

5.3.2 Building Components 151

5.4 Analysis 156

5.5 Peer Review 157

References 157

II Blast Phenomena and Loadings 159

6 Blast Phenomena 161
Paul F. Mlakar and Darrell Barker

6.1 Introduction 161

6.2 Sources of Blasts 162

6.3 Characteristics of Blast Waves 170

6.3.1 Key Parameters 170

6.3.2 Scaling 171

6.4 Prediction of Blast Parameters 172

6.4.1 High Explosives 172

6.4.2 Bursting Pressure Vessels 177

6.4.3 Vapor Cloud Explosions 178

6.5 Summary 181

References 181

7 Blast Loading 183
Paul F. Mlakar and William Bounds

7.1 Introduction 183

7.2 Empirical Method 183

7.2.1 Empirical Method—Basic Blast Wave Example 186

7.3 Front Wall Loads 186

7.3.1 Empirical Method—Front Wall Loading Example 188

7.3.2 Empirical Method—Oblique Angle Example 192

7.4 Side Wall and Roof Loads 192

7.4.1 Empirical Method—Side Wall Loading Example 194

7.4.2 Empirical Method—Roof Loading Example 196

7.5 Rear Wall Loads 197

7.5.1 Empirical Method—Rear Wall Loading Example 197

7.6 Confined Explosions 198

7.7 Leakage 206

7.8 Ray-Tracing Procedures 208

7.9 Summary 212

References 212

8 Fragmentation 215
Kim King

8.1 Introduction 215

8.2 Debris 215

8.3 Loadings 215

8.3.1 Primary Fragmentation 216

8.3.2 Secondary Fragmentation 218

8.4 Design Fragment Parameters 226

8.4.1 Fragment Final Velocity 226

8.4.2 Fragment Trajectory 227

8.5 Fragment Impact Damage 228

8.5.1 Fragment Penetration into Miscellaneous Materials (THOR Equation) 229

8.5.2 Steel 231

8.5.3 Fragment Penetration into Concrete Targets 233

8.5.4 Fragment Perforation of Concrete Targets 235

8.5.5 Fragment Spalling of Concrete Targets 236

8.5.6 Roofing Materials 236

8.5.7 Other Materials 237

References 237

III System Analysis and Design 239

9 Structural Systems Design 241
Robert Smilowitz and Darren Tennant

9.1 General Discussion 241

9.1.1 Seismic versus Blast 241

9.1.2 Analytical Methods 243

9.2 Modeling 244

9.2.1 Systems 245

9.2.2 Materials 246

9.2.3 Members 248

9.2.4 Connections 251

9.3 Analytical Approaches 252

9.3.1 P-I Diagrams 252

9.3.2 Single-Element Analyses 253

9.3.3 Structural Systems Response 255

9.3.4 Explicit Dynamic Finite Element Analyses 255

9.4 Progressive Collapse 256

9.4.1 European Guidance 258

9.4.2 U.S. Guidance 258

References 261

10 Building Envelope and Glazing 263
Eve Hinman and Christopher Arnold

10.1 Design Intent 263

10.1.1 Life Safety 263

10.1.2 Emergency Egress and Facilitating Search and Rescue 264

10.1.3 Critical Functions (Protecting Equipment and Business Processes) 264

10.2 Design Approach 265

10.2.1 Response Criteria 269

10.2.2 Static versus Dynamic 270

10.2.3 Balanced Design 270

10.2.4 Load Path 270

10.3 Fenestration 272

10.3.1 Glass 273

10.3.2 Mullions/Transoms 278

10.3.3 Frame and Anchorage 279

10.3.4 Supporting Structure 280

10.3.5 Other Penetrations 280

10.4 Exterior Walls 281

10.4.1 Concrete Walls 282

10.4.2 Masonry 285

10.4.3 Steel 285

10.4.4 Other 286

10.5 Roof Systems 289

10.5.1 Concrete 289

10.5.2 Steel 289

10.5.3 Composite 290

10.5.4 Penthouses/Gardens 290

10.6 Below Grade 290

10.7 Reduction of Blast Pressures 292

References 294

11 Protection of Spaces 297
MeeLing Moy and Andrew Hart

11.1 Areas Isolating Interior Threats 297

11.2 Stairwell Enclosures 298

11.3 Hardened Plenums 298

11.4 Safe Havens 299

11.4.1 FEMA Documents 299

11.4.2 Multi-Hazard Threats 300

11.4.3 Design Requirements for Protective Shelters 301

References 305

12 Defended Perimeter 307
Joseph L. Smith and Charles C. Ellison

12.1 Goals 307

12.2 Standoff 307

12.2.1 Balancing Hardening with Standoff 309

12.2.2 Balancing Costs 311

12.2.3 Site Planning 313

12.3 Vehicle Control Barriers 316

12.3.1 Crash Testing 316

12.3.2 Crash Modeling 317

12.3.3 Walls 319

12.3.4 Bollards 319

12.3.5 Active Wedge 320

12.3.6 Beam Barriers 320

12.3.7 Cable-Based Systems 323

12.3.8 Planter and Surface Barriers 324

12.3.9 Berms, Ditches, and Other Landscaping Features 324

12.4 Pedestrian Control Barriers 325

12.5 Blast Walls and Berms 327

References 329

13 Blast-Resistant Design of Building Systems 331
Scott Campbell and James Ruggieri

13.1 Background 331

13.2 Introduction 332

13.3 Design Considerations 333

13.3.1 Level of Protection 334

13.3.2 Blast Pressures 334

13.3.3 Shock Induced by the Structure 335

13.3.4 Equipment/System Anchorage 337

13.3.5 Placement of Critical Systems Equipment and Control Stations 340

13.3.6 Staffing and Building Operations 340

13.3.7 Construction of Hardened Spaces 341

13.3.8 HVAC and Plumbing Systems 341

13.3.9 Electrical Systems 344

13.3.10 Lighting Systems 346

13.3.11 Other Systems/Considerations 346

13.4 Loading Calculation 348

13.4.1 Blast Pressure 349

13.4.2 In-Structure Shock 352

13.5 Summary 362

References 363

IV Blast-Resistant Detailing 365

14 Blast-Resistant Design Concepts and Member Detailing 367
Steven Smith and W. Gene Corley

14.1 General 367

14.1.1 Scope 367

14.2 Failure Modes 368

14.2.1 Flexural 368

14.2.2 Diagonal Tension 369

14.2.3 Direct Shear 369

14.2.4 Membrane 369

14.2.5 Stability 370

14.3 Detailing 370

14.3.1 General 370

14.3.2 Splices 371

14.3.3 Columns 372

14.3.4 Beams 375

14.3.5 Beam-Column Joints 377

14.3.6 Slabs 378

14.3.7 Walls 380

References 380

15 Blast-Resistant Design Concepts and Member Detailing: Steel 383
Charles Carter

15.1 General 383

15.1.1 Typical Building Designs 383

15.1.2 Prescriptive Building Designs 384

15.1.3 Performance-Based Building Designs 385

15.2 Blast Effects on Structural Steel and Composite Structures 386

15.2.1 Member Ductility 386

15.2.2 Connection Ductility 386

15.2.3 Overstrength 386

15.2.4 Beneficial Strain-Rate Effects 386

15.2.5 Beneficial Effects of Composite Construction 387

15.2.6 Perimeter Column Design 387

15.2.7 Perimeter Girder Design 387

15.2.8 Slab Design 388

15.3 Analysis and Design of Structural Members 388

15.4 Steel Material Properties for Blast Design 388

15.4.1 Strength Increase Factor (SIF) 389

15.4.2 Dynamic Increase Factor (DIF) 389

15.4.3 Dynamic Design Stress 390

15.5 Design Criteria for Blast Design 390

15.5.1 General 390

15.5.2 Load Combinations 391

15.5.3 Resistance Factor and Factor of Safety 391

15.5.4 Local Buckling 391

15.5.5 Lateral-Torsional Buckling 391

15.5.6 Deformation Criteria 391

15.5.7 Detailing for Specific Failure Modes: 393

15.6 Examples 397

15.6.1 Example 1—Determining Capacities 397

15.6.2 Example 2—Design and Analysis for Blast Loads on Members 402

15.7 Design of Connections 418

References 419

16 Blast-Resistant Design Concepts and Member Detailing: Masonry 421
Shalva Marjanishvili

16.1 General Considerations 423

16.1.1 Masonry 424

16.1.2 Reinforcement 424

16.1.3 Mortar 425

16.1.4 Grout 425

16.1.5 Construction Methods 425

16.2 Failure Modes 426

16.2.1 Flexure 428

16.2.2 Diagonal Tension Shear 431

16.2.3 Direct Shear 432

16.2.4 Breach and Spall Phenomena 432

16.3 Reinforced Masonry Detailing 434

16.3.1 General 435

16.3.2 Longitudinal Reinforcement 435

16.3.3 Horizontal Reinforcement 435

16.3.4 Walls 438

16.3.5 Support Connections 438

16.4 Unreinforced Masonry 439

16.4.1 Performance Evaluation 439

16.4.2 Retrofit Recommendations 440

References 442

17 Retrofit of Structural Components and Systems 445
John E. Crawford and L. Javier Malvar

17.1 Introduction 445

17.2 Retrofit of Columns 446

17.2.1 Reinforced Concrete Columns 446

17.2.2 Steel Columns 454

17.3 Retrofit of Walls 458

17.3.1 Masonry Walls 458

17.3.2 Stud Walls 466

17.4 Floors 466

17.5 Beams/Girders/Connections 468

17.6 Structural System 469

17.7 References 469

17.7.1 Inexact Science 469

17.7.2 Complexities 470

References 470

Index 477