The Person: An Introduction to the Science of Personality Psychology, 5th Edition

Preface xix

Part I The Background: Persons, Human Nature, and Culture 1

Chapter 1 Studying the Person 2

What Do We Know When We Know a Person? 3

SKETCHING AN OUTLINE: DISPOSITIONAL TRAITS 4

FILLING IN THE DETAILS: CHARACTERISTIC ADAPTATIONS 6

CONSTRUCTING A STORY: INTEGRATIVE LIFE NARRATIVES 9

Science and the Person 11

STEP 1: UNSYSTEMATIC OBSERVATION 12

STEP 2: BUILDING THEORIES 13

STEP 3: EVALUATING PROPOSITIONS 15

Setting Up an Empirical Study 16

The Correlational Design 18

The Experimental Design 20

Personality Psychology 21

THE PAST AND THE PRESENT 22

Feature 1.A: Gordon Allport and the Origins of Personality Psychology 25

ORGANIZATION OF THIS BOOK 27

Summary 28

Chapter 2 Evolution and Human Nature 31

On Human Nature: Our Evolutionary Heritage 32

PRINCIPLES OF EVOLUTION 32

THE ENVIRONMENT OF EVOLUTIONARY ADAPTEDNESS 35

Feature 2.A: The Evolution of Religion 37

THE ADAPTED MIND 39

MATING 42

GETTING ALONG AND GETTING AHEAD 47

Feature 2.B: Some Women (and Men) Are Choosier Than Others: Sociosexuality 48

Hurting, Helping, and Loving: Three Faces of Human Nature 50

AGGRESSION 51

ALTRUISM 54

ATTACHMENT 57

Summary 65

Chapter 3 Social Learning and Culture 67

Behaviorism and Social-Learning Theory 68

AMERICAN ENVIRONMENTALISM: THE BEHAVIORIST TRADITION 68

EXPECTANCIES AND VALUES 74

BANDURA’S SOCIAL-LEARNING THEORY 76

Observational Learning 76

Self-Efficacy 78

The Social Ecology of Human Behavior 80

Feature 3.A: How Should Parents Raise Their Children? 81

MICROCONTEXTS: THE SOCIAL SITUATION 83

MACROCONTEXTS: SOCIAL STRUCTURE 85

GENDER AS A MACROCONTEXT 87

CULTURE 90

Individualism and Collectivism 92

Modernity 96

Feature 3.B: Race and Personality in the United States 97

HISTORY 99

Summary 102

Part II Sketching the Outline: Dispositional Traits and the Prediction of Behavior 105

Chapter 4 Personality Traits: Fundamental Concepts and Issues 106

The Idea of Trait 108

WHAT IS A TRAIT? 108

A BRIEF HISTORY OF TRAITS 111

Gordon Allport 113

Raymond B. Cattell 115

Hans Eysenck 116

THE BIG FIVE AND RELATED MODELS 119

Feature 4.A: What is Your Type? The Scientific Status of the Myers–Briggs Type Indicator 124

Measuring Traits 125

CONSTRUCTING A TRAIT MEASURE 125

CRITERIA OF A GOOD MEASURE 128

TRAIT INVENTORIES 130

Feature 4.B: Narcissism: The Trait of Excessive Self-Love 131

PERSONALITY TRAITS AND PERSONALITY DISORDERS 136

The Controversy Over Traits 142

MISCHEL’S CRITIQUE 143

AGGREGATING BEHAVIORS 145

INTERACTIONISM 148

Persons versus Situations versus Interactions 148

Reciprocal Interactionism 149

Traits as Conditional Statements 150

CONCLUSION 152

Summary 153

Chapter 5 Five Basic Traits—In the Brain and in Behavior 155

E: Extraversion 157

SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND COGNITIVE PERFORMANCE 157

FEELING GOOD 159

N: Neuroticism 163

Feature 5.A: Extreme Sports and the Sensation-Seeking Trait 164

THE MANY WAYS TO FEEL BAD 166

STRESS AND COPING 169

Feature 5.B: Are We Living in the Age of Anxiety? 170

Extraversion and Neuroticism in the Brain 172

EYSENCK AND THE THEORY OF AROUSAL 172

THE BEHAVIORAL APPROACH SYSTEM 175

THE BEHAVIORAL INHIBITION SYSTEM 177

LEFT AND RIGHT 181

O: Openness to Experience 183

CORRELATES OF O 185

THE AUTHORITARIAN PERSONALITY 190

C and A: Conscientiousness and Agreeableness 192

WORK 193

LOVE 195

LIFE 197

Feature 5.C: Eysenck’s Psychoticism: Low A, Low C, and Some Other Bad Things 198

Summary 201

Chapter 6 Continuity and Change in Traits: The Roles of Genes, Environments, and Time 205

The Continuity of Traits 207

TWO KINDS OF CONTINUITY 207

DIFFERENTIAL CONTINUITY IN THE ADULT YEARS 210

CHILDHOOD PRECURSORS: FROM TEMPERAMENT TO TRAITS 213

The Origins of Traits: Genes and Environments 218

THE LOGIC OF TWIN AND ADOPTION STUDIES 219

HERITABILITY ESTIMATES OF TRAITS 222

SHARED ENVIRONMENT 225

NONSHARED ENVIRONMENT 227

Feature 6.A: Birth Order: A Nonshared Environmental Effect 228

HOW GENES SHAPE ENVIRONMENTS 229

GENE × ENVIRONMENT INTERACTIONS: NEW FINDINGS

FROM NEUROSCIENCE 232

Change and Complexity 236

DIFFERENT MEANINGS OF CHANGE 236

TRAIT CHANGE IN THE ADULT YEARS 238

PATTERNS OF TRAITS OVER TIME 244

WHAT ELSE MIGHT CHANGE? 246

Feature 6.B: Happiness Over the Human Lifespan 247

Summary 249

Part III Filling in the Details: Characteristic Adaptations to Life Tasks 253

Chapter 7 Motives and Goals: What Do We Want in Life? 254

The Psychoanalytic View 255

THE UNCONSCIOUS 256

Feature 7.A: Sigmund Freud and the Birth of Psychoanalysis 258

REPRESSION AND REPRESSORS 261

THE EGO’S DEFENSES 265

The Humanistic View 271

CARL ROGERS’S THEORY 271

ABRAHAM MASLOW’S PSYCHOLOGY OF BEING 273

INTRINSIC MOTIVATION AND SELF-DETERMINATION THEORY 275

The Diversity View 279

HENRY MURRAY’S THEORY OF NEEDS 279

THE TAT AND THE PSE 281

ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION 282

POWER MOTIVATION 286

INTIMACY MOTIVATION 290

IMPLICIT AND SELF-ATTRIBUTED MOTIVES 292

PERSONALIZED GOALS 295

Summary 298

Chapter 8 Self and Other: Social-Cognitive Aspects of Personality 301

The Psychology of Personal Constructs 302

GEORGE KELLY’S THEORY 303

EXPLORING PERSONAL CONSTRUCTS: THE REP TEST 305

Cognitive Styles and Personality 308

FIELD INDEPENDENCE–DEPENDENCE 309

INTEGRATIVE COMPLEXITY 312

Social-Cognitive Theory and the Person 315

Feature 8.A: Religious Values and Personality 316

SOCIAL INTELLIGENCE 317

SELF-SCHEMAS 321

POSSIBLE SELVES: WHAT I MIGHT BE; WHAT I MIGHT HAVE BEEN 323

DISCREPANCIES AMONG SELVES 326

SCHEMAS, ATTRIBUTIONS, AND EXPLANATORY STYLE: THE CASE OF DEPRESSION 328

Feature 8.B: The Positive Psychology of Virtue: Gratitude as an Example 332

MENTAL REPRESENTATIONS OF OTHERS: ATTACHMENT IN ADULTHOOD 334

Summary 342

Chapter 9 Developmental Stages and Tasks 345

Martin Luther’s Identity Crisis 346

Erik Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development 350

DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES IN CHILDHOOD 350

Feature 9.A: Early Object Relations 353

THE PROBLEM OF IDENTITY 355

Adolescence and Young Adulthood 355

Identity Statuses 357

Identity and Intimacy 360

GENERATIVITY AND ADULT DEVELOPMENT 363

A Model of Generativity 363

Individual Differences in Generativity 368

Integrity 370

Jane Loevinger’s Theory of Ego Development 371

STAGES OF THE EGO 372

The Infant 374

The Child 375

The Adolescent 376

The Adult 377

MEASURING EGO DEVELOPMENT 378

CONCLUSION 381

Summary 382

Part IV Making a Life: The Stories We Live By 385

Chapter 10 Life Scripts, Life Stories 386

The Meaning of Stories 390

THE NARRATING MIND 390

HEALING AND INTEGRATION 392

Feeling and Story: Tomkins’s Script Theory 396

AFFECTS 397

SCENES AND SCRIPTS 400

Basic Concepts 400

Types of Scripts 402

Narrative Identity 403

DEVELOPMENT OF THE LIFE STORY 404

Feature 10.A: Time and Story in Bali 405

CULTURE AND NARRATIVE 409

STORY THEMES AND EPISODES 411

TYPES OF STORIES 416

WHAT IS A GOOD STORY? 423

Feature 10.B: When Did Identity Become a Problem? 424

Summary 426

Chapter 11 The Interpretation of Stories: From Freud to Today 429

Freudian Interpretation 431

THE STORY OF OEDIPUS 431

A CASE OF OEDIPAL DYNAMICS: THE DEATH OF YUKIO MISHIMA 434

THE CASE OF DORA 437

Feature 11.A: An Alternative Take on Oedipus: Chodorow’s Gender Theory 439

Two Traumatic Events 441

The Dream of the Jewel-Case 442

Dora Revisited 445

PRINCIPLES OF INTERPRETATION 446

Text and Treaty 446

Manifest and Latent 447

Symptoms and Everyday Life 449

The Jungian Approach:Myth and Symbol 451

A COLLECTIVE UNCONSCIOUS 451

INDIVIDUATION AND THE HEROIC QUEST 452

INTERPRETING A DREAM SERIES 455

Adler: Beginnings and Endings 458

INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY 458

THE EARLIEST MEMORY 459

FICTIONAL FINALISM 460

Lives as Texts 462

HERMANS’S DIALOGICAL SELF 463

MUSIC AND STORY: GREGG’S APPROACH 467

THE POSTMODERN SELF 469

FEMINIST PERSPECTIVES 471

Summary 473

Chapter 12 Writing Stories of Lives: Biography and Life Course 475

Icarus: An Ancient Story 476

Personology and the Study of Lives 480

MURRAY AND THE HARVARD PSYCHOLOGICAL CLINIC 480

THE PERSONOLOGICAL TRADITION 484

SCIENCE AND THE SINGLE CASE 488

Biography, Narrative, and Lives 492

PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY 492

Feature 12.A: Studying Famous People in History 493

Feature 12.B: Why Did van Gogh Cut Off His Ear? 500

THE SEASONS OF ADULT LIFE 501

THE LIFE COURSE 506

Summary 509

Glossary 511

References 525

Credits 575

Name Index 579

Subject Index 588