Comparative Approaches to Program Planning

Preface xiii

Acknowledgments xxiii

Chapter 1 Differences Between Lines and Circles 1

Lines and Circles as Planning Metaphors 5

A Brief History of Lines and Circles 7

Planning Theory: Both Lines and Circles 16

Examples of Planning Approaches 20

The ‘‘Surety’’ of the Line and the ‘‘Tentativeness’’ of the Circle 24

A Conceptual Framework 25

Summary 27

Discussion Questions 28

Chapter 2 Programs: Containers for Idea Implementation 31

Programs and Projects; Services and Interventions 32

Programs and Projects 36

Services and Interventions 38

Programs in Organizational Context 39

Program Planning 43

Mandates and Initiatives 44

Planning Different Types of Programs 46

Summary 48

Discussion Questions 49

Case Exercise: Chronic Pain 51

Chapter 3 Rational Planning and Prescriptive Approaches 59

Case: The Mayor and the Street Educators 61

Introduction 69

History of Rational Planning and Prescriptive Approaches 71

Dimensions of Rational Planning and Prescriptive Approaches 75

The Logic Model 75

Assessing Needs 78

Defining and Analyzing Problems 80

Selecting Intervention Strategies 82

Writing Goals and Objectives 87

Program Design and Decision-Making 91

Accountability in a Prescriptive Approach 96

Accountability Challenges 97

Information Systems 100

Budgeting 103

Rational Planning 104

Mind-sets 104

Skills 106

Strengths and Challenges of Rational Planning 110

Summary 112

Discussion Questions 114

Chapter 4 Interpretive Planning and Emergent Approaches 117

Case: The Invisible People and the Area Agency on Aging 119

Introduction 126

History of Interpretive Planning and Emergent Approaches 129

Dimensions of Interpretive Planning and Emergent Approaches 133

The Logic of Emergence 133

Engagement 138

Discovery 144

Sense-making 146

Unfolding 148

Accountability in an Emergent Approach 155

Accountability Challenges 156

Accountability Options 157

Interpretive Planning 162

Mind-sets 163

Skills 164

Strengths and Challenges of Interpretive Planning 165

Summary 166

Discussion Questions 167

Chapter 5 Knowing When to Use Which Planning Approach 169

Case: AIDS Orphans and the Pig Intervention 173

Similarities in Planning Approach Challenges 176

Gaining Entry 177

Becoming Oriented 179

Engaging in Critical Thinking 181

Making Ethical Decisions 187

Comparing Program Planning Approaches 192

Comparing Dimensions 192

Examining Accountability 198

Thinking about Mind-sets and Skills 201

Decision Issues for Approach Selection 205

Summary 208

Discussion Questions 208

Appendix: Comparing Planning Approaches 210

Chapter 6 Program Planning in Diverse Cultural Contexts 213

Culture and Context 216

Defining Culture 216

Elements in Culture Development 217

Cultural Competence 220

Skills of the Culturally Competent 222

Challenges to Culturally Competent Human Service Programming 225

Understanding Empiricism 225

Recognizing Realism and Interpretivism 227

Responding to Accountability Demands 229

Cultural Competence and Program Planning 231

Planning with Sensitivity to Difference 233

Planning with Sensitivity to Inclusion 238

Planning with Sensitivity to Context 240

Planning Across Multiple Organizational Settings 244

Issues When Practicing Internationally 245

Summary 247

Conclusion 249

Exercises 250

Glossary 253

References 271

Index 281