Environmental Engineering: Prevention and Response to Water-, Food-, Soil-, and Air-borne Disease and Illness, 6th Edition

PREFACE xv

CONTRIBUTORS xvii

CHAPTER 1 DISEASE TRANSMISSION BY CONTAMINATED WATER 1
Richard F. Unz

Introduction / 1

Control of Source (Agent Factors) / 3

Control of Mode of Transmission / 5

Control of Susceptibles (Host Factors) / 6

Typical Epidemic Control / 8

Waterborne Diseases / 12

General / 12

Survival of Pathogens / 13

Substance Dose to Cause Illness / 15

Summary of Characteristics and Control of Water- and Foodborne Diseases / 17

Vehicle or Means by Which Waterborne Diseases Are Spread / 44

Historical Waterborne Disease Background / 45

Control and Prevention of Waterborne Diseases / 55

Prevention of Waterborne Diseases / 56

Schistosomiasis / 58

Bioterrorism / 59

Smallpox / 61

Anthrax / 62

Plague / 64

Tularemia / 65

Glanders / 65

Botulism / 66

Tetanus or Lockjaw / 67

Noninfectious and Noncommunicable Diseases and

Conditions Associated with the Water Environment / 67

Background / 67

Prevention and Control / 71

Investigation of a Water Disease Outbreak / 72

General / 72

Samples and Specimens / 81

Epidemiology and Risk / 83

Molecular Detection of Waterborne Pathogens / 86

References / 90

Bibliography / 98

CHAPTER 2 CONTROL OF DISEASES OF THE AIR AND LAND 99
Nabarun Dasgupta

Communicable Diseases / 99

Background / 99

Life Expectancy and Mortality / 101

Framework for Disease Transmission / 106

Regulatory Authorities in Health / 108

Epidemic Control at the Individual Level / 109

Behavioral Change / 110

Antibiotics and Antivirals / 111

Vaccination (or Immunization) / 111

Control of Infectious Agents and Vectors / 113

Environmental Control of Infectious Diseases / 114

Arthropodborne Diseases / 116

Zoonoses and Their Spread / 127

Infectious Respiratory Diseases / 138

Bioterrorism / 141

Smallpox / 142

Anthrax / 143

Noncommunicable Diseases and Conditions Associated with the Environment / 143

Background / 143

Prevention and Control / 146

Environmental Control Legislation / 147

Lead Poisoning / 151

Carbon Monoxide Poisoning / 154

Mercury Poisoning / 155

Illnesses Associated with Air Pollution—Lung Diseases / 157

Asbestos Diseases / 159

Malignant Neoplasms (Cancer) / 160

Cardiovascular Diseases / 160

Methemoglobinemia / 162

Dental Caries / 162

Hypothermia / 163

High Environmental Temperatures / 163

Skin Damage from Sunlight / 164

Tap Water Scalds / 165

Sporotrichosis / 165

Definitions / 165

Useful Internet Web Sites / 169

References / 169

CHAPTER 3 FOODBORNE DISEASES 175
Nabarun Dasgupta

Introduction / 175

Survival of Pathogens / 176

Infectious Dose / 177

Reservoir or Source of Disease Agents / 178

Humans as Reservoirs / 178

Animals as Reservoirs / 180

Food Spoilage / 181

Burden and Cost of Foodborne Illness / 183

Foodborne Disease Outbreak Surveillance / 184

Poultry / 185

Milk and Other Dairy Products / 186

Fruits and Vegetables / 188

Meat and Seafood / 188

Control and Prevention of Foodborne Diseases / 188

Prevention of Foodborne Diseases / 188

Mercury Poisoning / 197

Methemoglobinemia / 199

Dental Caries / 200

Sporotrichosis / 201

Nutritional Deficiency and Related Diseases / 201

References / 207

CHAPTER 4 APPROPRIATE TECHNOLOGY FOR DEVELOPING COUNTRIES 213
Harvey F. Ludwig

Abbreviations / 213

Introduction / 215

Background / 215

History / 215

Problem of Developing Countries / 216

Summary of DC Problem / 217

Purpose of This Chapter / 219

Specific Subjects Included in This Chapter / 220

Environmental Governance / 223

Introduction / 223

Situation in DCs versus United States/ICs / 223

What DC and IAA Practitioners Can Do to Correct This Problem / 224

Role of the Private Sector / 225

Urban Water Supply / 225

Situation in United States/ICs / 225

Situation in Typical DCs / 226

Suggested Approach for Improving IAA Assistance to DCs / 227

Appropriate Water Quality Standards / 229

Water and Sewer Pipes in Same Trench / 229

Reuse of Treated Wastewater / 231

IAA-Sponsored Community Water Supply Programs / 231

Other Considerations / 232

Water Hyacinths / 233

Water Quality Analyses / 234

Water Quality Monitoring / 238

Role of Private Sector / 238

Integrated Economic-cum-Environmental Development Planning (IEEDP) / 240

Water Resources Management / 240

Reducing Water Irrigation Requirement / 241

China Studies Sponsored by World Bank / 241

Watershed Management / 242

Urban Sewerage and Excreta Management (USEM) / 242

Situation in ICs / 243

Situation in Typical DCs / 245

Sewerage-cum-Sanitation Systems for 100 Percent

Excreta Management / 247

Sewage Treatment Systems / 247

Sewage Collection (Including Interceptors, Pumping, Transmission) / 248

Sewage Characteristics and Needs for Treatment and Point Source Control / 250

Sewage Flow Measurement / 250

Appropriate Standards / 251

Marine Sewage Disposal / 251

Buffer Area Requirements around

Treatment/Pumping Plants / 253

Regional Water Pollution Control / 253

Industrial Wastewater Management / 253

Situation in ICs versus DCs / 253

Discharge into Municipal Sewerage Systems (MSSs) / 255

Discharge Directly to Environment / 256

Appropriate Standards / 257

Cleaner Production (CP) / 257

Industrial Estates / 258

Marine Disposal / 258

Abstract / 260

Urban Solid Waste Management / 261

Situation in United States versus DCs / 261

Practical Sanitary Landfilling Technology for DCs / 261

Experience in Asian DCs / 262

Alternative Disposal Methods / 264

Reclamation of Swamp Lowlands by Refuse Landfilling / 264

Urban Air Pollution Control / 269

Background / 269

Thailand: General Situation / 269

Thailand: Sharing of Controls for Multiple Industries / 270

Air Pollution Control Experience in India / 272

Hazardous Wastes Management / 276

Background / 276

Guidelines Manual for DCs / 276

Megacities: Rural to Urban Migration / 282

Background / 282

Economic Policies for Sustainable Development (ADB) / 282

Existing Situation in the DCs / 283

Urban Growth Management/Action Strategy / 285

Effective Control of Environmental Degradation / 287

Follow-up Evaluation of ADB Study / 288

Essay on Urban Population Growth in DCs / 290

Urban Slums / 292

Background / 292

Indonesia Kampung Improvement Projects (KIPs) / 292

Urban Sanitation / 295

Ports and Harbors / 295

Coastal City of Chonburi in Thailand / 296

Public Water Supply Taps / 296

Rural Sanitation / 298

Very Low Priority for Attention / 298

WHO Manuals / 298

Xiaolangdi Resettlement / 298

Farm Animal Manures / 300

Handwashing / 300

School Sanitation / 301

Hazard of Flies / 301

Septic Tanks for Coastal Homes on Stilts / 301

Water Treatment for Homes Using Surface Waters / 301

Public Health / 302

Assessment by Asian Development Bank / 302

Water Supply and Sanitation / 302

Disease Reporting / 303

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) / 305

Difficulties in Application of EIA Process to DCs / 305

Effective Use of EIA Process in DCs / 306

Recommended EIA Report Components / 309

Constraints for Construction Contractors / 310

Need for Effective Training / 312

Environmental Economics and Financing / 313

Inclusion of Environmental Values in Project

Economic Analysis (PEA) / 313

Effect of EPMs on Project Economic and Financial Analyses / 313

Human Greed Parameter / 313

Economic-cum-Environmental Development Planning / 314

Value of Human Life / 314

Protecting Precious Eco-Resources / 314

Emergencies Management / 315

Technology Transfer (TT) / 315

Problem / 315

Recommendation / 317

Development Planning for DCs / 317

Social Parameters: Attention to Rural Poverty Poor / 317

Eco-Resources Protection / 319

Affordability of Environmental Improvements / 322

Integrated Economic-cum-Environmental Development Planning (IEEDP) / 322

Global Warming / 323

Problem / 323

Future of Environment in Developing Countries / 325

Problem of DCs / 325

Changes in Environmental Policy in the ICs / 325

Glimpse of Future / 326

Recommendations / 326

References / 326

CHAPTER 5 ENVIRONMENTAL EMERGENCIES AND EMERGENCY PREPAREDNESS 335
Piero M. Armenante and James P. Mack

Introduction / 335

Emergency Planning for Industrial Facilities / 339

Resources / 340

Emergency Operations Centers (EOCs) / 341

Media Center / 341

Communication Equipment and Alarm Systems / 342

Firefighting Facilities, Equipment, and Supplies / 344

Spill and Vapor Release Control Equipment / 345

Medical Facilities, Equipment, and Supplies / 345

Meteorological Equipment / 346

Security and Access Control Equipment / 346

Environmental Testing Systems / 346

Emergency Action Levels / 347

Emergency Response Organization / 347

Initial-Response Organization / 348

Full Emergency Response Organization / 349

Emergency Director (Site Emergency Coordinator) / 349

Response Operations Coordinator / 349

Incident Response Commander (IRC, Field Operations Coordinator) / 351

Incident Response Team / 351

Emergency Functions / 352

Emergency Response Actions / 353

Concept of Operations / 353

Emergency Response Implementing Procedures / 353

Environmental Considerations / 354

Recovery, Reentry, and Restoration / 354

Training, Exercises, and Plan Maintenance / 355

Emergency Planning at the Local Level / 356

Emergency Management / 356

Leadership Commitment / 356

Planning Team / 357

Planning Process / 358

Hazards Analysis / 358

Damage Assessment and Recovery Operations / 360

Resources / 360

Content of the Plan and Procedures / 361

Plan Integration / 362

Public Information / 363

Public Education / 363

Public Emergency Notification / 364

Conclusion / 364

References / 364

INDEX 367